Determinants of maternal stress during COVID-19 outbreak in Italy and Spain: A cross-cultural investigation.

  1. Giannotti, Michele
  2. Mazzoni, Noemi
  3. Facchini, Maria
  4. de Falco, Simona
  5. Venuti, Paola
  6. Iandolo, Giuseppe
  1. 1 University of Trento
    info

    University of Trento

    Trento, Italia

    ROR https://ror.org/05trd4x28

  2. 2 Observation and Functional Diagnosis Division, PSISE Clinical and Developmental Psychological Service, Madrid, Spain
  3. 3 Universidad Europea de Madrid
    info

    Universidad Europea de Madrid

    Madrid, España

    ROR https://ror.org/04dp46240

Revista:
Journal of Family Psychology

ISSN: 1939-1293 0893-3200

Año de publicación: 2022

Tipo: Artículo

DOI: 10.1037/FAM0000993 GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openAcceso abierto editor

Otras publicaciones en: Journal of Family Psychology

Resumen

The present study aims to investigate cross-cultural differences and similarities in maternal and children’s adjustment to COVID-19 restrictions in Spain and Italy, with reference to determinants of maternal stress. A total of 950 mothers (45.4% from Spain, n = 432, M age = 39.6, years old, SD = 5.2 and 54.5% from Italy, n = 518, M age = 40.5, years, SD = 6.4) of children aged 3–17 years old completed questionnaires on sociodemographic and COVID-19 contextual factors, parenting-related variables, and children externalizing behaviors using an online survey. We examined determinants of parental stress in both countries. Mothers reported a significant increase in parental stress and child externalizing behaviors during COVID-19 home confinement, with more remarkable perceived changes in the Spanish group. Hierarchical linear regressions showed that child age and externalizing behaviors, maternal psychological distress, quality of coparenting and pre-COVID-19 levels of parental stress significantly predicted parental stress in both Italian and Spanish mothers during the pandemic. Results confirmed the negative psychological impact of COVID-19 home confinement on parents and children across countries and revealed common underlying factors responsible for parental stress in Italy and Spain. These findings highlighted the need for communitarian preventive programs to reduce mental health difficulties and parental stress in mothers and behavioral difficulties in children during pandemic restrictions. Particular attention should be paid to young mothers and children, and the key role of positive partner support and coparenting relationships should be considered.

Información de financiación

Financiadores

  • Municipality of Rovereto
  • Fondazione Caritro
  • Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21(4), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12
  • Alzueta, E., Perrin, P., Baker, F. C., Caffarra, S., Ramos-Usuga, D., Yuksel, D., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2020). How the COVID-19 pandemic has changed our lives: A study of psychological correlates across 59 countries. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 556–570. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23082
  • Becerra, I. G., Contreras, J. M. F., Romero, M. P. A., López, P. S., & Torres, M. F. (2020). Evolución del estado psicológico y el miedo en la infancia y adolescencia durante el confinamiento por la COVID-19. Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes, 7(3), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.21134/rpcna.2020.mon.2029
  • Bentenuto, A., Mazzoni, N., Giannotti, M., Venuti, P., & de Falco, S. (2021). Psychological impact of Covid-19 pandemic in Italian families of children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 109, Article Article 103840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103840
  • Berry, J. O., & Jones, W. H. (1995). The parental stress scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12(3), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407595123009
  • Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting, 12(2–3), 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359
  • Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
  • Brown, S. M., Doom, J. R., Lechuga-Peña, S., Watamura, S. E., & Koppels, T. (2020). Stress and parenting during the global COVID-19 pandemic. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal, 110, Article Article 104699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104699
  • Calasanti, T., & King, N. (2007). Taking “women”s work’ “like a man”: Husbands’ experiences of care work. The Gerontologist, 47(4), 516–527. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/47.4.516
  • Cénat, J. M., Blais-Rochette, C., Kokou-Kpolou, C. K., Noorishad, P. G., Mukunzi, J. N., McIntee, S. E., Dalexis, R. D., Goulet, M. A., & Labelle, P. R. (2021). Prevalence of symptoms of depression, anxiety, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and psychological distress among populations affected by the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 295, Article Article 113599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113599
  • Crnic, K., & Low, C. (2002). Everyday stresses and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Practical issues in parenting (pp. 243–267). Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.457.3309&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  • Cusinato, M., Iannattone, S., Spoto, A., Poli, M., Moretti, C., Gatta, M., & Miscioscia, M. (2020). Stress, resilience, and well-being in Italian Children and their parents during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), Article Article 8297. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228297
  • Davenport, M. H., Meyer, S., Meah, V. L., Strynadka, M. C., & Khurana, R. (2020). Moms are not OK: COVID-19 and maternal mental health. Frontiers in Global Women’s health, 1, Article Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2020.00001
  • Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5(3), 314–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x
  • Deater-Deckard, K., & Panneton, R. (2017). Unearthing the developmental and intergenerational dynamics of stress in parent and child functioning. In K. Deater-Deckard & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental stress and early child development (pp. 1–11). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4_1
  • Di Giorgio, E., Di Riso, D., Mioni, G., & Cellini, N. (2021). The interplay between mothers’ and children behavioral and psychological factors during COVID-19: An Italian study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(9), 1401–1412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01631-3
  • Durtschi, J. A., Soloski, K. L., & Kimmes, J. (2017). The dyadic effects of supportive coparenting and parental stress on relationship quality across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 43(2), 308–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12194
  • Erades, N., & Sabuco, A. M. (2020). Impacto psicológico del confinamiento por la COVID-19 en niños españoles: un estudio transversal. Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes, 7(3), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.21134/rpcna.2020.mon.2041
  • Feinberg, M. E., Brown, L. D., & Kan, M. L. (2012). A multi-domain self-report measure of coparenting. Parenting, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.638870
  • Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2011). What is more important for national well-being: Money or autonomy? A meta-analysis of well-being, burnout, and anxiety across 63 societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), 164–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023663
  • Fisher, A. N., & Ryan, M. K. (2021). Gender inequalities during COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220984248
  • Fontanesi, L., Marchetti, D., Mazza, C., Di Giandomenico, S., Roma, P., & Verrocchio, M. C. (2020). The effect of the COVID-19 lockdown on parents: A call to adopt urgent measures. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S79–S81. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000672
  • Francisco, R., Pedro, M., Delvecchio, E., Espada, J. P., Morales, A., Mazzeschi, C., & Orgilés, M. (2020). Psychological symptoms and behavioral changes in children and adolescents during the early phase of COVID-19 quarantine in three European countries. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article Article 570164. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.570164
  • Gausman, J., & Langer, A. (2020). Sex and gender disparities in the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Women’s Health, 29(4), 465–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2020.8472
  • Germani, A., Buratta, L., Delvecchio, E., & Mazzeschi, C. (2020). Emerging adults and COVID-19: The role of individualism-collectivism on perceived risks and psychological maladjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10), Article Article 3497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103497
  • Giannotti, M., Mazzoni, N., Bentenuto, A., Venuti, P., & de Falco, S. (2021). Family adjustment to COVID-19 lockdown in Italy: Parental stress, coparenting, and child externalizing behavior. Family Process. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12686
  • Goldberg, D. P. (1988). User’s guide to the General Health Questionnaire. NFER-Nelson.
  • Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x
  • Gröpel, P., & Kuhl, J. (2009). Work-life balance and subjective well-being: The mediating role of need fulfilment. British Journal of Psychology, 100(2), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712608X337797
  • Grzywacz, J. G., & Bass, B. L. (2003). Work, family, and mental health: Testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(1), 248–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00248.x
  • Guo, J., De Carli, P., Lodder, P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Riem, M. M. E. (2021). Maternal mental health during the COVID-19 lockdown in China, Italy, and the Netherlands: A cross-validation study. Psychological Medicine. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720005504
  • Halper, L. R., Cowgill, C. M., & Rios, K. (2019). Gender bias in caregiving professions: The role of perceived warmth. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 49(9), 549–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12615
  • Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. Revised and Expanded (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill; https://www.mhprofessional.com/9780071664189-usa-cultures-and-organizations-software-of-the-mind-third-edition-group
  • Hofstra, M. B., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2002). Child and adolescent problems predict DSM-IV disorders in adulthood: A 14-year follow-up of a Dutch epidemiological sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200202000-00012
  • Hofstra, M. B., Van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2000). Continuity and change of psychopathology from childhood into adulthood: A 14-year follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(7), 850–858. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200007000-00013
  • Horesh, D., & Brown, A. D. (2020). Traumatic stress in the age of COVID-19: A call to close critical gaps and adapt to new realities. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(4), 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000592
  • IBM Corp. (2017). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, Version 25.0.
  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (2020). Mujeres y hombres en España. https://www.ine.es/ss/Satellite?L=es_ES&c=INEPublicacion_C&cid=1259924822888&p=1254735110672&pagename=ProductosYServicios%2FPYSLayout&param1=PYSDetalleGratuitas&param2=1254735350965&param4=Mostrar
  • Istituto Nazionale di Statistica. (2020). Attività conoscitiva preliminare all’esame del Documento di economia e finanza 2020. https://www.istat.it/it/files/2020/04/DOSSIER-Emergenza-e-diseguaglianze.pdf
  • Italian Psychological Association. (2015). Code of ethics for research in psychology. http://www.aipass.org/node/11560
  • Kowal, M., Coll-Martín, T., Ikizer, G., Rasmussen, J., Eichel, K., Studzińska, A., Koszałkowska, K., Karwowski, M., Najmussaqib, A., Pankowski, D., & Lieberoth, A. (2020). Who is the most stressed during the covid-19 pandemic? Data from 26 countries and areas. Applied Psychology. Health and Well-Being, 12(4), 946–966. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12234
  • Lauri Korajlija, A., & Jokic-Begic, N. (2020). COVID-19: Concerns and behaviours in Croatia. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 849–855. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12425
  • Liang, L., Ren, H., Cao, R., Hu, Y., Qin, Z., Li, C., & Mei, S. (2020). The effect of COVID-19 on youth mental health. Psychiatric Quarterly, 91(3), 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09744-3
  • Liu, N., Zhang, F., Wei, C., Jia, Y., Shang, Z., Sun, L., Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., & Liu, W. (2020). Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Research, 287, Article Article 112921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112921
  • Louie, A. D., Cromer, L. D., & Berry, J. O. (2017). Assessing parenting stress: Review of the use and interpretation of the parental stress scale. The Family Journal, 25(4), 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717731347
  • Marchetti, D., Fontanesi, L., Mazza, C., Di Giandomenico, S., Roma, P., & Verrocchio, M. C. (2020). Parenting-related exhaustion during the Italian COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 45(10), 1114–1123. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsaa093
  • Mazza, C., Ricci, E., Biondi, S., Colasanti, M., Ferracuti, S., Napoli, C., & Roma, P. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Italian people during the COVID-19 pandemic: Immediate psychological responses and associated factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), Article Article 3165. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093165
  • McRae, C. S., Overall, N. C., Henderson, A. M. E., Low, R. S. T., & Chang, V. T. (2021). Parents’ distress and poor parenting during a COVID-19 lockdown: The buffering effects of partner support and cooperative coparenting. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1623–1632. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001207
  • Morelli, M., Cattelino, E., Baiocco, R., Trumello, C., Babore, A., Candelori, C., & Chirumbolo, A. (2020). Parents and children during the COVID-19 lockdown: The influence of parenting distress and parenting self-efficacy on children’s emotional well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article Article 584645. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.584645
  • Orgilés, M., Francisco, R., Delvecchio, E., Espada, J. P., Mazzeschi, C., Pedro, M., & Morales, A. (2021). Psychological symptoms in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Youth during the COVID-19 health crisis: A longitudinal study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01211-9
  • Orgilés, M., Morales, A., Delvecchio, E., Mazzeschi, C., & Espada, J. P. (2020). Immediate psychological effects of the COVID-19 quarantine in youth from Italy and Spain. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article Article 579038. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579038
  • Oronoz, B., Alonso-Arbiol, I., & Balluerka, N. (2007). A Spanish adaptation of the parental stress scale. Psicothema, 19, 687–692. http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/3417.pdf
  • Palut, B. (2009). A review on parenting in the Mediterranean countries. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 33(2), 242–247. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/cumusosbil/issue/4341/59338
  • Park, C. L., Russell, B. S., Fendrich, M., Finkelstein-Fox, L., Hutchison, M., & Becker, J. (2020). Americans’ COVID-19 stress, coping, and adherence to CDC guidelines. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(8), 2296–2303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-05898-9
  • Piccinelli, M., Bisoffi, G., Bon, M. G., Cunico, L., & Tansella, M. (1993). Validity and test-retest reliability of the Italian version of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire in general practice: A comparison between three scoring methods. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 34(3), 198–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X(93)90048-9
  • Rocha, K. B., Pérez, K., Rodríguez-Sanz, M., Borrell, C., & Obiols, J. E. (2011). Propiedades psicométricas y valores normativos del General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) en población general española. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 11(1), 125–139. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/337/33715423008.pdf
  • Rodríguez-González, M., Lampis, J., Murdock, N. L., Schweer-Collins, M. L., & Lyons, E. R. (2020). Couple adjustment and differentiation of self in the United States, Italy, and Spain: A cross-cultural study. Family Process, 59(4), 1552–1568. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12522
  • Rodríguez-Hernández, P. J., Betancort, M., Ramírez-Santana, G. M., García, R., Sanz-Alvarez, E. J., & De las Cuevas-Castresana, C. (2014). Puntos de corte de la versión española del Cuestionario de Cualidades y Dificultades (SDQ). Revista de Psiquiatría Infanto-Juvenil, 31(3), 23–29. https://www.aepnya.eu/index.php/revistaaepnya/article/view/169
  • Romero, E., López-Romero, L., Domínguez-Álvarez, B., Villar, P., & Gómez-Fraguela, J. A. (2020). Testing the effects of COVID-19 confinement in Spanish children: The role of parents’ distress, emotional problems, and specific parenting. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), Article Article 6975. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17196975
  • Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D., Mensi, S., Niolu, C., Pacitti, F., Di Marco, A., Rossi, A., Siracusano, A., & Di Lorenzo, G. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown measures impact on mental health among the general population in Italy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article Article 790. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00790
  • Russell, B. S., Hutchison, M., Tambling, R., Tomkunas, A. J., & Horton, A. L. (2020). Initial challenges of caregiving during COVID-19: Caregiver burden, mental health, and the parent–child relationship. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 51(5), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01037-x
  • Sahithya, B. R., Kashyap, R. S., & Roopesh, B. N. (2020). Perceived stress, parental stress, and parenting during COVID-19 lockdown: A preliminary study. Journal of Indian Association for Child Adolescent Mental Health, 16(4), 44–63. https://jiacam.org/ojs/index.php/JIACAM/article/view/583/339
  • Sandín, B., Valiente, R. M., García-Escalera, J., & Chorot, P. (2020). Impacto psicológico de la pandemia de COVID-19: Efectos negativos y positivos en población española asociados al periodo de confinamiento nacional. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 25(1), Article Article 1. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.27569
  • Singh, S., Roy, D., Sinha, K., Parveen, S., Sharma, G., & Joshi, G. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on mental health of children and adolescents: A narrative review with recommendations. Psychiatry research, 293, Article Article 113429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113429
  • Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., & Fasolo, M. (2020). Parents’ stress and children’s psychological problems in families facing the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article Article 1713. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01713
  • Sprang, G., & Silman, M. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after health-related disasters. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 7(1), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2013.22
  • Thompson, R., Tabone, J. K., Litrownik, A. J., Briggs, E. C., Hussey, J. M., English, D. J., & Dubowitz, H. (2011). Early adolescent risk behavior outcomes of childhood externalizing behavioral trajectories. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(2), 234–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431609361203
  • Thorell, L. B., Skoglund, C., de la Peña, A. G., Baeyens, D., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Groom, M. J., Mammarella, I. C., Van der Oord, S., van den Hoofdakker, B. J., Luman, M., & de Miranda, D. M. (2021). Parental experiences of homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic: Differences between seven European countries and between children with and without mental health conditions. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01706-1
  • Tobia, V., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2018). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire-parents for Italian school-aged children: Psychometric properties and norms. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 49(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0723-2
  • Tucker, K. L., Ozer, D. J., Lyubomirsky, S., & Boehm, J. K. (2006). Testing for measurement invariance in the satisfaction with life scale: A comparison of Russians and North Americans. Social Indicators Research, 78(2), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-1037-5
  • Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: Child and maternal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3
  • World Health Organization. (2020). Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV): Situation report–51.2020. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200311-sitrep-51-covid-19.pd-f?sfvrsn=1ba62e57_10